Fig. 1

Incidence densities of healthcare-associated infections in intensive care units across Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan from 2008 to 2015. Abbreviations: AMR: antimicrobial-resistance; HAI: healthcare-associated infections; ICN: infection control nurse; ICP: infection control personnel; IPC: infection prevention and control; JANIS: Japan Nosocomial Infection Surveillance; ICD: infection control doctor; KONIS: Korean National Healthcare-associated Infection Surveillance; MDRO: multi-drug resistant organisms; TNIS: Taiwan Nosocomial Infection Surveillance. ^a In 1984, every teaching hospital in Taiwan was required to have one ICN per 300 hospital beds. In 2004, hospitals with more than 500 beds are required to have at least one ICD, and hospitals with more than 300 beds are required to have at least one ICN per 250 beds. In 2017, hospitals with more than 500 beds are encouraged to have one ICD for every 300 beds and one ICN for every 250 beds (Table 1). ^b Included training healthcare staff, establishing infection control committees, and formulating hospital policies. ^c Restricts use of antimicrobials in ambulatory patients with upper respiratory infections but without evidence of bacterial infection. ^d Act 29 specifies that IPC are the duties of hospitals with more than 300 beds. Act 47 mandates IPC as part of hospital accreditation. In 2012, hospitals with more than 200 beds are required to appoint an infection control committee and at least one full-time experienced staff (Table 1). ^e Japanese medical law obligated all health care institutions to implement operational safety measures against HAI, which includes IPC guidelines, IPC training, and disease reporting. ^f Hospitals should have an infection control team that consists of ICN, ICD, infection control pharmacist and infection control microbiology technologist. Hospitals should also have an IPC policy and antimicrobial stewardship program (Table 1). a Taiwan; b South Korea; c Japan