Table 1 Definitions and clarification of selected CDC 12-step recommendations

Step 4: Target the pathogen

Inappropriate empiric antibiotic choice based on the likely pathogen

Inappropriate definitive antibiotic choice based on identified pathogen susceptibility (need for de-escalation)

Step 6: Practice antimicrobial control

Inappropriate prophylaxis regimen (drug or duration)

Inappropriate antibiotic combination (redundant coverage)

Inappropriate route of administration (requiring a shift from intravenous administration to oral)

Inappropriate dose of antibiotic (based on indication, renal function, etc.) (not assessed in this study)

Step 8: Treat infection, not contamination or colonization

Treating contamination or colonization and not a true, lab-confirmed confirmed infection

Step 9: Know when to say ‘no’

Starting empirical vancomycin or broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g. meropenem, piperacillin/tazobactam, or ceftazidime) unnecessarily

Step 10: Stop infection when cured or unlikely

Continuing antibiotics despite ruling out infection or having negative cultures or completing an appropriate duration of therapy