Table 2 Commonly assessed risk factors for intestinal carriage of drug-resistant E. coli, 2014-2019. OR = Odds Ratio; CI = Confidence interval. Note: *indicates results from systematic review

Risk factor

Number of studies investigated*

Number of studies finding significant association*

Number of samples assessed

Number of samples with drug resistant bacteria

Pooled OR (95%CI)

χ²(P-value)

l²

General factors

Gender

11

1

9836

1428

1.16 (0.98-1.36)

8.77 (0.46)

0

Diet restriction (vegetarian)

5

2

6802

989

1.60 (1.00-2.56)

3.22 (0.52)

0

Pet

4

1

5159

407

1.15 (0.33-4.06)

5.23 (0.16)

43

Education level

4

0

5067

925

0.93 (0.74-1.17)

0.98 (0.81)

0

Smoking

4

1

4497

712

0.77 (0.18-3.25)

6.37 (0.04)

69

Clinical factors

Antimicrobial use

13

6

10079

1407

1.84 (1.35-2.51)

18.28 (0.05)

45

Previous hospital admission

7

2

6108

465

1.63 (0.84-3.18)

7.83 (0.17)

36

Diarrhea

7

4

5144

1079

1.56 (1.09-2.25)

5.76 (0.33)

13

Proton-pump inhibitor use

3

2

4111

359

1.31 (0.11-15.5)

5.81 (0.05)

66

Chronic disease

3

2

2323

766

0.91 (0.13-6.53)

8.68 (0.01)

77

Travel related factors

International travel

6

2

6460

520

1.13 (0.67-1.91)

10.73 (0.06)

53

Travel to Southeast Asia

8

4

6632

1289

1.78 (0.64-4.98)

50.28 (<0.01)

86

Travel to Africa

5

2

6692

1105

1.29 (0.52-3.21)

81.34 (<0.01)

94

Travel to India

4

4

2953

423

4.15 (2.54-6.78)

2.50 (0.48)

0