Group of studies | Number of studies | Medium versus low education level OR (95% CI) | High versus low education level OR (95% CI) | 1-year increase in education OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
All studies | 94 | 0.94 (0.83, 1.06) | 0.86 (0.72, 1.03) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.00) |
Study design | ||||
Cohort | 2 | – | – | 0.93 (0.89, 0.97) |
Cross-sectional | 92 | 0.95 (0.84, 1.07) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.05) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.00) |
Type of antibiotic misuse | ||||
Use without prescription | 70 | 0.94 (0.82, 1.08) | 0.85 (0.68, 1.06) | 0.99 (0.97, 1.00) |
Storage of antibiotics | 10 | 1.17 (0.93, 1.48) | 1.41 (1.22, 1.64) | 1.03 (1.01, 1.06) |
Non-adherence | 9 | 0.98 (0.65, 1.49) | 0.98 (0.71, 1.35) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.03) |
Several concomitant types of misuse | 5 | – | – | 0.91 (0.87, 0.95) |
Country economy | ||||
Low | 14 | 0.84 (0.54, 1.32) | 0.69 (0.37, 1.28) | 0.97 (0.92, 1.02) |
Lower-middle | 24 | 0.94 (0.74, 1.19) | 0.70 (0.44, 1.13) | 0.97 (0.93, 1.01) |
Upper-middle | 30 | 1.02 (0.89, 1.17) | 0.95 (0.78, 1.16) | 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) |
High | 25 | 0.80 (0.66, 0.97) | 0.97 (0.74, 1.27) | 1.00 (0.97, 1.03) |
WHO Region | ||||
Africa | 18 | 0.93 (0.75, 1.16) | 0.84 (0.59, 1.21) | 0.98 (0.95, 1.01) |
Eastern Mediterranean | 27 | 0.91 (0.68, 1.22) | 0.64 (0.42, 1.00) | 0.96 (0.93, 1.00) |
European | 18 | 1.02 (0.81, 1.28) | 1.25 (1.00, 1.58) | 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) |
Region of the Americas | 6 | 1.06 (0.82, 1.38) | 0.98 (0.69, 1.38) | 1.00 (0.97, 1.03) |
South-East Asia | 8 | 0.61 (0.30, 1.23) | 0.45 (0.14, 1.41) | 0.93 (0.81, 1.06) |
Western Pacific | 17 | 0.94 (0.77, 1.14) | 1.11 (0.94, 1.31) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) |
Publication year | ||||
Until 2015 | 42 | 0.99 (0.81, 1.21) | 0.95 (0.74, 1.22) | 1.00 (0.97, 1.02) |
After 2015 | 52 | 0.92 (0.81, 1.05) | 0.81 (0.64, 1.02) | 0.98 (0.96, 1.00) |
Pre-tested or validated questionnaire | ||||
No | 26 | 0.75 (0.59, 0.95) | 0.65 (0.41, 1.02) | 0.97 (0.94, 1.01) |
Yes | 68 | 1.01 (0.89, 1.15) | 0.95 (0.80, 1.13) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) |
Restriction, matching or adjustment for age and gender | ||||
No | 47 | 0.86 (0.72, 1.02) | 0.70 (0.53, 0.94) | 0.97 (0.93, 1.01) |
Yes | 47 | 1.00 (0.85, 1.19) | 1.05 (0.87, 1.28) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.02) |
Quality Score | ||||
Lower quality (≤ 3 points) | 34 | 0.84 (0.67, 1.04) | 0.76 (0.52, 1.10) | 0.98 (0.95, 1.01) |
Higher quality (> 3 points) | 60 | 1.00 (0.87, 1.15) | 0.93 (0.77, 1.11) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) |