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Table 2 Summary odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence interval (CI) estimated by categorical and continuous approaches of dose–response meta-analysis

From: Education level and misuse of antibiotics in the general population: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis

Group of studies

Number of studies

Medium versus low education level

OR (95% CI)

High versus low education level

OR (95% CI)

1-year increase in education

OR (95% CI)

All studies

94

0.94 (0.83, 1.06)

0.86 (0.72, 1.03)

0.99 (0.97, 1.00)

Study design

    

Cohort

2

0.93 (0.89, 0.97)

Cross-sectional

92

0.95 (0.84, 1.07)

0.88 (0.73, 1.05)

0.99 (0.97, 1.00)

Type of antibiotic misuse

    

 Use without prescription

70

0.94 (0.82, 1.08)

0.85 (0.68, 1.06)

0.99 (0.97, 1.00)

 Storage of antibiotics

10

1.17 (0.93, 1.48)

1.41 (1.22, 1.64)

1.03 (1.01, 1.06)

 Non-adherence

9

0.98 (0.65, 1.49)

0.98 (0.71, 1.35)

0.99 (0.96, 1.03)

 Several concomitant types of misuse

5

0.91 (0.87, 0.95)

Country economy

    

 Low

14

0.84 (0.54, 1.32)

0.69 (0.37, 1.28)

0.97 (0.92, 1.02)

 Lower-middle

24

0.94 (0.74, 1.19)

0.70 (0.44, 1.13)

0.97 (0.93, 1.01)

 Upper-middle

30

1.02 (0.89, 1.17)

0.95 (0.78, 1.16)

1.00 (0.98, 1.02)

 High

25

0.80 (0.66, 0.97)

0.97 (0.74, 1.27)

1.00 (0.97, 1.03)

WHO Region

    

 Africa

18

0.93 (0.75, 1.16)

0.84 (0.59, 1.21)

0.98 (0.95, 1.01)

 Eastern Mediterranean

27

0.91 (0.68, 1.22)

0.64 (0.42, 1.00)

0.96 (0.93, 1.00)

 European

18

1.02 (0.81, 1.28)

1.25 (1.00, 1.58)

1.02 (1.00, 1.04)

 Region of the Americas

6

1.06 (0.82, 1.38)

0.98 (0.69, 1.38)

1.00 (0.97, 1.03)

 South-East Asia

8

0.61 (0.30, 1.23)

0.45 (0.14, 1.41)

0.93 (0.81, 1.06)

Western Pacific

17

0.94 (0.77, 1.14)

1.11 (0.94, 1.31)

1.01 (0.99, 1.03)

Publication year

    

 Until 2015

42

0.99 (0.81, 1.21)

0.95 (0.74, 1.22)

1.00 (0.97, 1.02)

 After 2015

52

0.92 (0.81, 1.05)

0.81 (0.64, 1.02)

0.98 (0.96, 1.00)

Pre-tested or validated questionnaire

    

 No

26

0.75 (0.59, 0.95)

0.65 (0.41, 1.02)

0.97 (0.94, 1.01)

 Yes

68

1.01 (0.89, 1.15)

0.95 (0.80, 1.13)

0.99 (0.98, 1.01)

Restriction, matching or adjustment for age and gender

    

 No

47

0.86 (0.72, 1.02)

0.70 (0.53, 0.94)

0.97 (0.93, 1.01)

 Yes

47

1.00 (0.85, 1.19)

1.05 (0.87, 1.28)

1.00 (0.99, 1.02)

Quality Score

    

 Lower quality (≤ 3 points)

34

0.84 (0.67, 1.04)

0.76 (0.52, 1.10)

0.98 (0.95, 1.01)

 Higher quality (> 3 points)

60

1.00 (0.87, 1.15)

0.93 (0.77, 1.11)

0.99 (0.98, 1.01)