Table 3 Examples of non-enveloped virus transmission via hands leading to nosocomial outbreaks and examples of hand rub efficacy in animal husbandry

Adenoviruses species A–C, E–G, Species D types 8, 37, 53, 54, 64

Respiratory transmission as well as via hands and surfaces

Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis transmission predominantly via hands and surfaces; types 4 and 7 also via swimming pools

[58, 59]

[58, 60]

Aphthovirus

This foot-and-mouth virus may be transferred between animals without virucidal hand rub via animal care personnel

[61]

Bocavirus

Mainly respiratory transmission, but also via hands and surfaces

[62]

Coxsackievirus group A types 1–22, 24, group B types 1–6

Transmission mainly via hands; hand, foot and mouth disease worldwide more than 100 outbreaks in nurseries, but also nosocomial infections in adults;

[63,64,65]

Echovirus serotypes 1–9, 11–21 24–27, 29–33

Transmission predominantly via direct or indirect oral contact, but also via hands

[66]

Enterovirus A 71; D28, 70

Respiratory transmission and through hands; A 71 epidemic paralysis

[62, 64]

HAV

Transmission predominantly fecal–oral via hands by contact with an infected person in cases of inadequate hand antisepsis and inadequate terminal cleaning

[42, 67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78]

HEV

Transmission predominantly fecal–oral via hands, spread is proven through person-to-person contact in genotype-1 infections

[79, 80]

Human papillomavirus

Mainly sexual transmission, but also via hands and vaginal ultrasound probes

[81,82,83,84]

Human rhinovirus

Mainly respiratory transmission, but also via hands, especially in an outbreak

[62, 85]

Norovirus

In 18.5% of analyzed outbreaks, virus transmission by HCW via hands

[86]

After primary food-borne outbreak, further transmission by staff

[87]

Interruption of an outbreak after changing the virucidally active ingredients

[46]

Parvovirus B19

Mainly respiratory transmission, but also via hands, transmissibility in outbreak 31%

[88, 89]

Rotavirus

Outbreak in adults with transmission between patients via hands

[90]

Poliovirus

Transmission fecal–oral via hands and/or droplets or aerosols

[91]