Table 1 Risk factors for the emergence and transmission of AMR in East Africa
Antimicrobial resistance study | Risk factors investigated | Significant risk factors | Hosts | Country | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among healthy under-5 children | age, sex, education, visit the hospital, antibiotic use | – | human | Tanzania | [37] |
Multiple ESBL-Producing E. coli Carrying Quinolone and Aminoglycoside Resistance Genes | sex, location, animal type, breed, antibiotic use | animal type, breed, antibiotic use | animals | Tanzania | [12] |
Resistant E. coli in three culturally diverse ethnic groups | Increased number of water sources, adherence to antibiotic withdrawal periods, shared water resources, consumption of unboiled (raw) milk, | increased number of water sources, shared water, consumption of unboiled (raw) milk | Human, animals | Tanzania | [38] |
Antibiotic Resistance in E. coli | Higher-income, antibiotics use | higher income | human | Tanzania | [39] |
Nasal Carriage of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Duration in health care services, history of antibiotic use, history of chronic illness, duration in health care services, profession, age, location of health facilities, wards, | location of health facilities, duration in health care services | human | Tanzania | [40] |
Extended-Spectrum-Beta-Lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae | Prior admission, prior medication, currently admitted in the surgical ward, patient inside the room, over 4 days of hospitalization, currently on the antibiotic, currently on Ciprofloxacin, currently on Ceftriaxone, HIV positive, wound infection | prior admission, currently on the antibiotic, wound infection, | human | Tanzania | [41] |
Commonly used antimicrobial agents in bacterial pathogens isolated from urinary tract infections | Age, inpatient, hospitalization in the last 12 months, UTI in last 12 months, Urinary catheter, urinary catheter in last 12 months, use of other Antibiotics in the previous 6 months, Ciprofloxacin use in the previous 6 months, third-generation Cephalosporin use in the previous 6 months | Hospitalized (inpatient), third-generation Cephalosporin use in the previous 6 months, ciprofloxacin used in the previous 6 months | human | Rwanda | [42] |
Antimicrobial resistance patterns of phenotype Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase producing bacterial isolates | Age, sex, department, sample type, ward/clinic, bacteria isolate, condition at discharge, the period of admission (days), | longer hospital stay, condition at discharge | human | Tanzania | [43] |
Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of E. coli and K. pneumoniae | Age, sex, health centre level, location of health sub-district, HSD, history of admission, history of medical procedures, surgery, antibiotic use, use of gentamicin, use of ciprofloxacin, use of septrin | age, level of health facility, location of health sub-district, district of residence, undergoing medical procedures, use of septrin | human | Uganda | [10] |
Faecal carriage of ESBL-Producing Enterobacteriaceae | Sex, age, place of residence (district), parent level of education, children groups, hospitalized children, nutritional status, weight-for-age-Z-score, Length-for-age-Z-score, eight-for-length-Z-score, use of antibiotics, HIV | younger age, HIV infection and use of antibiotics | human | Tanzania | [44] |
Predictors of blaCTX-M-15 in varieties of E. coli genotypes from humans | Age, number of children, sex, location, antibiotic use, admission history, | age, history of antibiotic use, history of admission in the past 1 year | human | Tanzania | [45] |
Faecal carriage of CTX-M extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae | Source of income, source of food, local herbal use, street children type, primary education | local herbal use, street children type | human | Tanzania | [46] |
Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles and Clonal Relatedness of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains | age, gender, residence, antimicrobial source, ease in accessing over the counter, prescription availability, dose completion | self-medication, non-completion of dosage | human | Kenya | [47] |
Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization among Intensive Care Unit (ICU) patients and health care workers | Age, sex, education, occupation, smoking habit, history of sickness in past year, being sick for more 3 times, being diabetic, illicit drug use, | sex, history of sickness in past year, being sick for more 3 times, being diabetic, illicit drug use | human | Tanzania | [48] |
Inappropriate usage of selected antimicrobials | Sex, age, breed, place/origin (rural, urban) | place/origin (rural/urban), age, breed | animals | Uganda | [49] |
Extended-spectrum-beta lactamases producing Enterobacteriaceae | Age in days, sex, admission, body temperature, oxygen saturation, skin pustule, umbilical discharge, history of antibiotic-baby, maternal fever, maternal antibiotics, stool ESBL | positive ESBL-PE colonization of the mother, history of antibiotic use, | human | Tanzania | [50] |